Program Particulars
*Times indicated refer to Web version of audio

(01:05) Statistics on Hispanic Population
The Pew Hispanic Center published Hispanics: A People in Motion, a 2005 study examining the growing impact of Latinos in the United States. The 2000 U.S. Census revealed that 35.3 million Hispanics made up the population, a 58 percent increase from a decade earlier. In 2004 that number jumped to over 40 million people, or 14 percent of the entire population, eclipsing African Americans as the largest minority population in the United States. By 2020, the Pew Hispanic Center projects the Hispanic population will total over 60 million.

(01:49–03:29) Music
"The Multiples of One" from Awakening, performed by Joseph Curiale

(03:25–05:34) Music
"Tu Recuerdo" from Alfredo Coca y su Charango, performed by Alfredo Coca

(03:48) The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965
The Hart-Celler Immigration Bill of 1965 amended the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, effectively ending restrictive immigration laws that had been in effect since 1921. Prior to the passage of the 1965 amendment signed by President Johnson, immigrants were discriminated against entry based on their countries of origin. The amendment repealed these quota systems largely directed at Asian and Southern European immigrants.

The 1965 act gave priority to family members of immigrants already living in the United States. Citizens and permanent residents could sponsor immigrants in this order of preference:

1. Unmarried children under 21 years of age of U.S. citizens;
2. Spouses and unmarried children of permanent residents;
3. Professionals, scientists, and artists "of exceptional ability";
4. Married children over 21 years of age and their spouses and children of U.S. citizens;
5. Siblings and their spouses and children of U.S. citizens;
6. Workers in occupations with labor shortages; and
7. Political refugees.

Until 1965, over 80 percent of immigrants came from northern Europe and were predominantly from Ireland, Germany, and Great Britain. Today, only 17 percent come from Europe, 26 percent from Asia, and over 50 percent from Latin America.

(04:58) Assassination of Archbishop Oscar Romero
After his inauguration in 1977, Archbishop Oscar Arnulfo Romero became a voice for the marginalized and spoke out against the reigning government leaders and ruling classes in El Salvador. During his tenure, roving death squads acting on behalf of the government ran rampant. Romero railed against these murders during public masses and in radio broadcasts. He argued that it was the church's moral and ethical obligation to speak out against the injustices perpetrated by government leaders and the violations of human rights. He was assassinated on March 24, 1980. In his last sermon, he wrote:

I would like to make a special appeal to the men of the army, and specifically to the ranks of the National Guard, the police and the military. Brothers, you come from our own people. You are killing your own brother peasants when any human order to kill must be subordinate to the law of God which says, "Thou shalt not kill." No soldier is obliged to obey an order contrary to the law of God. No one has to obey an immoral law. It is high time you recovered your consciences and obeyed your consciences rather than a sinful order. The church, the defender of the rights of God, of the law of God, of human dignity, of the person, cannot remain silent before such an abomination. We want the government to face the fact that reforms are valueless if they are to be carried out at the cost of so much blood. In the name of God, in the name of this suffering people whose cries rise to heaven more loudly each day, I implore you, I beg you, I order you in the name of God: stop the repression.

The church preaches your liberation just as we have studied it in the holy Bible today. It is a liberation that has, above all else, respect for the dignity of the person, hope for humanity's common good, and the transcendence that looks before all to God and only from God derives its hope and its strength.

(05:25) Jesuits and Liberation Theology
Liberation theology is a movement that took shape within the Roman Catholic church in the late 20th century. Originating in Latin America after a meeting of bishops in 1968, the movement stresses the need for the church's involvement in political and social affairs of states. Liberation theology emphasizes working for social justice to fulfill scriptural mandate by helping poor and suffering people who are marginalized by oppressive governments. The bishops issued a statement condemning the conduct of wealthy nations that prospered at the expense of the native peoples. This critique proved extremely controversial within the Roman Catholic church and the ruling elites. The early liberation theologians used Marxist social analysis and they were condemned as Marxists and socialists.

Influenced by Dorothy Day and the Catholic Worker movement, Gustavo Gutiérrez, a Peruvian priest and theologian, is credited with writing the first important essay, Teología de la liberación (in English, A Theology of Liberation), in 1971. During the 1970s, liberation theology gained momentum in Latin America at the grass-roots level. Other leaders of the movement included theologian Leonardo Boff of Brazil, Jesuit scholar Jon Sobrino, and Archbishop Helder Câmara of Brazil. Pope John Paul II resisted the movement and, in 1984, issued a series of instructions (written by then-cardinal John Ratzinger, now Pope Benedict XVI). The pope advocated turning to the Gospels rather than political channels. Through Jesus Christ, John Paul II declared, the poor will be saved through the redemption of sin.

(06:10) Changes of Vatican II
In 1962, Pope John XXIII, named Man of the Year in 1963 by Time magazine, opened the Second Vatican Council with the intention of internal renewal of the global Roman Catholic church. When asked about his motivation for convening the council, Pope John XXIII moved to the window and threw open the sash - his rationale being, "I want to throw open the windows of the Church so that we can see out and the people can see in." The Council published 16 documents and produced many visible changes in Catholic life and doctrine. Most basically, it began to open up Catholic thought and doctrine, leading to a less hierarchical governance, increased roles for the laity, and Masses spoken in native languages rather than intoned in Latin. Pope John XXIII died before the Council was concluded. His successor, Pope Paul VI, closed the Council in 1965. The legacy of Vatican II is large, controversial, and still unfolding. In 1962, Pope John XXIII, named Man of the Year in 1963 by Time magazine, opened the Second Vatican Council with the intention of internally renewing the global Roman Catholic church. When asked about his motivation for convening the council, Pope John XXIII moved to the window and threw open the sash — his rationale being, "I want to throw open the windows of the Church so that we can see out and the people can see in."

The Council published 16 documents and produced many visible changes in Catholic life and doctrine. Most basically, it began to open up Catholic thought and doctrine, leading to a less hierarchical governance, increased roles for the laity, and Masses spoken in native languages rather than intoned in Latin. Pope John XXIII died before the Council was concluded. His successor, Pope Paul VI, closed the Council in 1965. The legacy of Vatican II is large, controversial, and still unfolding.

(07:45) Base Communities in Brazil
Communidades de base, or base communities, are local groups made up of 10 to 30 Christians, often led by lay people. Members study Scripture and provide for the basic needs of their parishioners. An instrumental tool for liberation theologians, base communities are centered on helping poor people by providing food, water, clothing, and basic utilities such as electricity and sanitation systems.

(10:01–11:32) Music
"Corrente Italiana" from Missa Mexicana, performed by The Harp Consort

(11:10) Mention of Remittances
A 2005 Pew Hispanic Center study revealed that over 40 percent of foreign-born Hispanics living in the U.S. — approximately six million people — sent remittances regularly to their country of origin. And, almost two-thirds of those adults sent money at least once per month. Of the five countries studied — Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico — 28 percent of adults living in El Salvador received remittances (the highest), followed by Guatemala (24 percent), Mexico (18 percent), Honduras (16 percent), and Ecuador (14 percent).

(12:52) Homo Economicus
The phrase Homo economicus posits that all humans are rational beings and will always attempt to maximize their utility for monetary or non-monetary gains.

(15:49) Sociologist Peter Berger
Listen to Krista's conversation with sociologist Peter Berger, author of Many Globalizations: Cultural Diversity in the Contemporary World. Here, Berger points out that the secularity of Western Europe is the anomaly and not the norm. He also discusses the growth of Pentecostalism in Guatemala and how it meshes with the indigenous cultures and traditions.

(17:40) Pentecostalism and the Great Commission
Pentecostalism is the largest and most influential religious movement ever to originate in the United States. In less than a century, it has grown to hundreds of millions of adherents. The New York Times reports that 25 percent of Christians worldwide are Pentecostal. The word "Pentecost" is taken from an ancient Jewish observance. The New Testament says that it was on Pentecost that the Holy Spirit descended on the early Christians for the first time. Pentecostalism stresses direct relationship and communication with God, which may be manifest in spiritual gifts such as speaking in tongues, healing, teaching, prophecy, and preaching.

The first modern Pentecostal was a woman, Agnes Ozman. She spoke in tongues on the first day of the 20th century at the original Pentecostal community in Topeka, Kansas. Then in 1906, an African-American preacher, William Joseph Seymour, led what became known as the Azusa Street Revival in downtown Los Angeles. This unprecedented gathering of people from every class and race lasted for three years. From there, Pentecostalism began to spread across the world.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the Pentecostal charismatic movement washed across denominational lines and barriers. Widely reported occasions of speaking in tongues and spiritual healing spread from an Episcopal church in California through Ivy League campuses and into the global Roman Catholic Church, as well as every major Protestant denomination. Today, Pentecostalism is pan-denominational. There are charismatic Catholics and Lutherans. There are unaffiliated Pentecostal communities, and there are established Pentecostal traditions, most prominently the Assemblies of God. Here, read Dr. Vinson Synan's concise overview on the history of Pentecostalism, including its roots in 19th century Methodist and Holiness traditions.

(19:06–20:55) Music
"Rocio Del Amanecer" from Alfredo Coca y su Charango, performed by Alfredo Coca

(19:38) Statistics on Conversion
The Latin American Catholic Bishops Conference estimates that 8,000 Latin Americans convert to evangelical Christianity each day and compose 15 percent of the population. From the 1980s to 2004, the evangelical movement has exploded from nearly 19 million to 60 million followers. Pentecostalism is evangelical Christianity's primary carrier — two out of three Evangelicals are Pentecostal. In the countries of Guatemala, Brazil, and Nicaragua, Pentecostals now outnumber practicing Roman Catholics.

(20:50) Azusa Street Revival
In 1906, an African-American preacher, William Joseph Seymour, led what became known as the Azusa Street Revival in downtown Los Angeles. This unprecedented gathering of people from every class and race lasted for three years. It's from here that Pentecostalism began to spread across the country and throughout the globe. Carmelo Alvarez has written an informative paper, Hispanic Pentecostals: Azusa Street and Beyond", detailing the spread of Pentecostalism in Latin America.

(24:18) Cult of the Saints and Marian Devotion
One form of devotion practiced by Roman Catholics revolves around the cult of saints. Roman Catholics venerate these persons who serve as models of genuine faith in the eyes of the Church, which insists on sanctifying and supervising the beatification and worshipping process in its dioceses. No Catholic is obligated to practice these devotions. Each saint exemplifies a particular thread of Christian faith within in his or her historical context, often predicated on a miraculous act or supernatural intercession.

Catholic theologians make a distinction among the forms of devotional worship: to God, latria or "adoration"; to the saints, dulia, or "service"; and to Mary, the virgin mother of Jesus Christ, hyperdulia, or "superservice." Mary takes on a special status — an almost idealized, mythical character — in Roman Catholicism. She is venerated for her matriarchal virtues of sacrifice, sympathy, and tenderness. Manifestations of Marian devotion commonly take the form of apparitions of Mary in locales around the world. Several famous examples include Lourdes, France; Fatima, Portugal; and Guadalupe, Mexico.

Sightings of apparitions of the Virgin Mary are not relegated to medieval times. Believers continue to spot signs to this day, as can be seen in the reflection of an office building in Clearwater, Florida or etched in the concrete of Kennedy Expressway in Chicago.

(24:51–27:19) Music
"Que Bonito Es" from Una Dia A La Vez, performed by Monsenor Juan Nicolau

(27:21–28:56) Music
"Tu Recuerdo" from Alfredo Coca y su Charango, performed by Alfredo Coca

(28:43–30:04) Music
"Cumbre" from Great Bolivian Instrumentals, performed by Pachamama

(30:05) Little Religions
Among the "lived religions" or "little religions" Manuel Vásquez mentions are Santeria (also known as La Regla de Ocha) and Candomblé — syncretic religions that meld the influences of the West Africa Yoruba religion with Roman Catholicism by way of Spain. Candomblé cosmology originally used traditional Catholic imagery as a way of worshipping African gods. Contemporary Candomblé uses orixas, which serve as an African deity and a Christian intercessor.

(36:07–37:24) Music
"Track 03" from Marimba Rajga, performed by Silvestre Ermelindo

(37:18) Mayan Community in Florida
Corn Maya, a non-profit group formed to assist Jacaltec Maya make the transition to the United States, works with the town of Jupiter to provide social services and promote cultural diversity. One outcome is the annual celebration of Fiesta Maya. Because of the large influx of Mayans, Jupiter and Jacaltenango (in Guatemala) have become sister cities.

(43:10–44:20) Music
"Kiko And The Lavender Moon" from El Cancionero: Mas Y Mas(Disc 3), performed by Los Lobos

(50:27–53:01) Music
"Seleccion de Kaluyos Recuerdos Muertos" from Alfredo Coca y su Charango, performed by Alfredo Coca